| Abstract | In the introduction of this thesis, I argue that popular religion and opera contributed greatly to the integration of Chinese society in late imperial times. Traditional governments, however, relied mainly on religion as a means of moral transformation (chiao-hua). They actively promoted certain religious cults and pamphlets, which successfully syncretized divine sanctions and Confucian ethics, to facilitate the establishment of a Confucian ideology among the people. Some rulers and gentry-officials realized that popular opera could also serve well the function of chiao-hua. Most of them, however, looked down upon it for various reasons. Consequently, opera was consciously rejected by the ruling class, though the value systems contained in it were spread among the commoners. It was not until the early twentieth century that popular opera became regarded by modern intellectuals and elites as an effective medium to enlighten the illiterate masses. in part one of this thesis, I discuss how people like Ch'en Tu-hsiu in the 1900s first rediscovered the instrumental value of popluar opera. in the 1910s and 1920s, intellectuals, artists and writers debated hotly the merits and demerits of old opera. But, whether they liked it or not, most of them recognized the close relationship between drama and society. in the early 1930s, Leftists intellectuals finally developed a more sophisticated theory about how to use old popular cultural forms to propagandize radical Communist doctrines. Their attitudes toward popular culture also shifted gradually from one of instrumental adoption to one of intrinsic appreciation. The second part of the thesis deals with the reformed opera, performed mainly in Shanghai and Sian. Through many experimental works, we can see how cultural, social and political issues were introduced to the public. But while theaters like the New Stage in Shanghai were bold in trying out various new theatrical forms, the new ideas introduced in their reformed operas were always interwoven with themes often seen in traditional popular culture. I also compare the differences between the New Stage and the Sian Society to Transform Customs in terms of their performances, ties with political forces, relationship with tradition, and the influence of the characteristics of the two cities. in the conclusion, I link the opera reform movement of the early twentieth century with what the CCP and the Red Army did with popular opera from the 1930s to the Cultural Revolution. I analyze the impact of the intervention of political forces upon popular culture and evaluate the CCP's manipulation of popular opera through the perspective of tradional chiao-hua. I also discuss briefly the interaction between high and low culture in Modern China. |
